The Relevance of Childhood Resilience Factors and Culture in Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) 

The Finding

Adverse childhood experiences have been consistently linked to increased risk for several mental and physical health problems. 

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are potentially traumatic events that occur during youth or adolescence (0-17 years). Examples of ACEs include: experiencing parental divorce or separation, living with a family member who is addicted to alcohol or other substances, having a family member who is incarcerated, experiencing physical and emotional neglect, and experiencing violence in the home or community, among other things. Research has found that emotion regulation can significantly explain the relationship between child abuse and trauma. However, social and interpersonal relationships have been shown to play a significant role in mediating the relationship between childhood adversity and anxiety. Mediation means that a third variable, here social relationships, is an important additional factor that helps explain the relationship between childhood adversity and anxiety. 

ACEs can impact the developmental trajectory of children. Since adverse events often happen during important periods of brain development, often referred to as critical periods, the effects and changes linked to ACEs may persist throughout childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. According to the Mayo Health System, in situations of prolonged childhood trauma, a child’s brain and body will produce an abundance of stress hormones that if not effectively regulated, can harm the function and structure of the brain. Chronic elevated levels of stress hormones and maladaptive stress hormone response profiles can impact how children learn and respond to stress throughout their lives. 

However, while ACEs may lead to increased risk for health and behavioral patterns later in life, their negative effects can be mitigated in situations in which individuals have a strong support system and effective coping mechanisms (otherwise known as resilience factors). Therefore, it is important to identify resilience factors that can help mitigate children’s exposure to adversity, to turn a potential risk factor into a lifelong adaptive benefit.

What contributes to resilience?

Resilience factors foster healthy development regardless of and in spite of exposure to adversity. They also shield against the negative effects of adversity. 

What contributes to resilience? Research finds that healthy, interdependent social bonds with friends and family – including parents, siblings, and nonparental adults – have all been associated with improved mental health. Research emphasizes that childhood social bonds are linked to a lower risk of later stress and mental health issues. Specifically, relationships with adults both within and outside of the family during childhood were strongly related to lower stress and lower risk of major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder in young adulthood. Social support often involves timely buffering after potentially negative experiences or events through support and guidance, advice, or as a way to strengthen social connections. The reliability of such support provides an element of predictability and a sense of controllability, both important determinants of whether a child develops resilience in the face of challenges.

Sources of meaning, such as religious practices and participation in other kinds of social groups, can also promote resilience by providing individuals with a sense of purpose and belonging.

Why is it important to consider racial and cultural factors?

Developing resilience is especially important for youth who experience high adversity because they have been racially or ethnically minoritized. 

For example, black youth are disproportionately exposed to racial discrimination, and they display greater health risk behaviors – such as conduct problems and substance use – and mental health concerns. Despite this disadvantage, the Black community has historically displayed strong resilience. Religion is an adaptive mechanism that might explain this source of resilience. Studies have found that participation in religion is associated with increased levels of subjective well-being and lower psychological distress in the Black community. In addition, racial socialization is another avenue for understanding the mental health resilience of the Black population. A strong sense of racial and cultural identity instills meaning, purpose, and pride. However, in recent years, mental health trends in this community, and other minority communities, have been changing. Recent data demonstrates a departure from the historical status quo, characterized by increasing struggles, especially in younger people. 

Regardless of general trends, exposure to ACEs can have lasting consequences that continue to impact Black youth through adulthood, and has been linked to increases in symptoms of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder, as well as increased tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. 

Furthermore, immigrant parents are at an increased risk of experiencing stress associated with low socioeconomic status, and cultural and language barriers that they face once they move to the United States. In addition, in a study on adverse childhood experiences and their association with emotional and behavioral problems in U.S. children of Latino immigrants, the research found that children with higher ACEs, especially in low socioeconomic groups, tend to have greater behavioral difficulties – particularly hyperactivity and inattention.

Culturally informed adverse childhood experiences framework for understanding the mental health impact of racism on black youth. Bernard, et al. (2020)

Probability of adverse childhood experiences by race/ethnicity (Non-Hispanic White, Non-Hispanic Black, and Hispanic). “High Global Adversity” included adolescents who experienced above-average probabilities of physical and psychological abuse, economic hardship, parental separation/divorce, and paternal incarceration. “High Socioeconomic Adversity & Paternal Incarceration” included those who had higher probabilities of experiencing economic hardship in their family, maternal low education, parental separation/divorce, and paternal incarceration. Lastly, in “Non-Hispanic Whites”,  “Parental Abuse” indicates higher probabilities of only physical and psychological abuse. Zhang and Monnat (2022).

How can we support students in combating ACEs? 

To begin, ACEs are preventable and parents can take steps to prevent their children from experiencing adverse childhood events. 

Along with preventing ACEs among children before they occur, parents can also support their children in overcoming adverse childhood experiences. The Center for Child Counseling has provided steps for working with at-risk children. To fight against ACEs, we can work on building resilience and promoting healthy relationships. First, we can teach children how to build internal coping skills. Examples of self-regulation and coping techniques include providing encouragement, supporting special interests, and promoting independence. Second, we can offer external support systems since most at-risk children may need professional assistance to build effective coping mechanisms. A good place to start would be offering early intervention and mental health care in elementary schools and childcare centers, especially in at-risk neighborhoods. 

Caregivers need to provide strong, protective relationships for children that allow them to thrive, even when facing adversity. Understanding risk factors provides us with the framework necessary to advocate for children’s development.  

Citations

Bernard, D. L., Calhoun, C. D., Banks, D. E., Halliday, C. A., Hughes-Halbert, C., & Danielson, C. K. (2020). Making the “C-ace” for a culturally-informed adverse childhood experiences framework to understand the pervasive mental health impact of racism on black youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 14(2), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-020-00319-9 

Center for Child Counseling. (n.d.). Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Minorities. Retrieved from https://www.centerforchildcounseling.org/aces-and-minorities/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/aces/fastfact.html

Keyes, C. L. (2009). The Black–White Paradox in Health: Flourishing in the face of social inequality and discrimination. Journal of Personality, 77(6), 1677–1706. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00597.x 

Mayo Clinic Health System. (n.d.). Overcoming Adverse Childhood Experiences. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/overcoming-adverse-childhood-experiences

Panagou, C., & MacBeth, A. (2022). Deconstructing pathways to resilience: A systematic review of associations between psychosocial mechanisms and transdiagnostic adult mental health outcomes in the context of adverse childhood experiences. Clinical psychology & psychotherapy, 29(5), 1626–1654. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2732

Rosado, J. I., Ramirez, A., Montgomery, J., Reyes, E., & Wang, Y. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and its association with emotional and behavioral problems in U.S. children of Latino immigrants. Child Abuse & Neglect, 112, 104887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104887 

VanBronkhorst, S. B., Abraham, E., Dambreville, R., Ramos-Olazagasti, M. A., Wall, M., Saunders, D. C., Monk, C., Alegría, M., Canino, G. J., Bird, H., & Duarte, C. S. (2024). Sociocultural risk and resilience in the context of adverse childhood experiences. JAMA Psychiatry, 81(4), 406. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.4900 

Vaughn, M. G., Salas-Wright, C. P., Huang, J., Qian, Z., Terzis, L. D., & Helton, J. J. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences among immigrants to the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(10), 1543–1564. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515589568 

Zhang, X., & Monnat, S. M. (2022). Racial/ethnic differences in clusters of adverse childhood experiences and associations with Adolescent Mental Health. SSM - Population Health, 17, 100997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100997

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